A. The theory of plate tectonics states that the outer layer of the Earth is divided into several sections or plates that slide over the Earth’s mantle, the rocky layer surrounding the core. As compared to the Earth’s mantle, the plates are hard and unyielding and constitute the lithosphere. A modern version of the continental drift, the theory of Plate Tectonics was first put forward by scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912. Though at the time Wegener had no rationalization about the movements of continents, researchers today do. Nicholas Van der Elst, a seismologist at Columbia University’s Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in Palisades, New York, says that plate tectonics is a unifying theory of geology.

B. The plate tectonic theory, in essence, says that the plates glide across over the Earth’s mantle interacting at their boundaries as they move. Using information and clues from rocks and fossils, geoscientists can demonstrate the development of the earth’s continents. It is believed by most researchers that plate tectonic movements began about 3 billion years ago, as seen from ancient magma and minerals that have been preserved in rocks from that period. “We don’t really know when plate tectonics as it looks today got started, but we do know that we have a continental crust that was likely scraped off a downgoing slab (a tectonic plate in subduction zone) that is 3.8 billion years old,” said Van der Elst. “We could guess that plate tectonics was operating, but it might have looked very different from today.”

C. Supercontinents are giant landmasses that come together occasionally when continents move. Rodinia is one of the earliest supercontinents to have taken shape around 1 billion years ago. By the Snowball Earth theory, extreme cooling of the earth occurred at least once around 600-700 million years ago. The breakup of the supercontinent is believed to have triggered extreme cooling. There are a few major plates and around a dozen minor plates. The major plates such as the North American, the African and the Antarctic plates are named after the continents embedded in them. Though smaller in size, minor plates are just as important in shaping the earth. The tiny Juan de Fuca plate accounts for most of the volcanic activity around the Pacific Northwest of the United States.

D. Three types of tectonic boundaries are created by the movement of the plates. Convergent refers to the movement of the plates into one another resulting in a collision between continents. When plates move apart, it is called divergent, and plate movement sideways in relation to each other is called a transform boundary. The movement is not noticeable as it measures only around one to two inches per year. Mountain ranges are formed due to the collision of landmasses where the crust buckles. Fifty-five million years ago, India and Eurasia collided, resulting in the formation of the Himalaya. The mountains get higher due to constant pressure and buckling. Mt Everest, which is the highest mountain in the world, may become just a little bit taller in the future. Usually, one plate dives beneath another in ocean-ocean convergences, forming deep trenches. The Mariana Trench, the deepest point on earth, situated in the North Pacific Ocean, is a good example. These types of collisions result in underwater volcanoes that ultimately develop into islands such as Japan.

E. In a report published in Nature Magazine, a team of Australian and American scientists asserts, however, that plate tectonics was not required in ancient times to form rocks much like the ones associated with the tectonic processes of today. “The issue of when the process began is highly debatable, but many geophysicists believe that about 3.0 to 2.8 billion years ago, the Earth went through a prolonged period in which its crust was a single solid shell, punctuated here and there by volcanoes, but without today’s moving plates,” says Michael Brown, applied metamorphic petrologist at the University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland. Undoubtedly, further research into plate tectonics is necessary to throw light on the subject.

A. Alchemy is commonly known as the practice of turning base metals into gold or creating a panacea, a magical potion that purifies everything. Although it has been practised widely in ancient cultures, and is also considered the first step in the development of modern chemistry, alchemy has been cryptic. The word ‘alchemy’ conjures up images of sinister laboratories and wizards with flowing white beards pottering around amongst crucibles stirring magic potions. However, alchemy was much more than the creation of golden nuggets.

B. The complex spiritual view of alchemy was that there is a universal spirit in everything around us and even items like metal were believed to have a life for them to grow inside the earth. Transmutation of base metals was a common aim of alchemy. Alchemists believed that a base metal such as lead could be transformed into a metal of much higher value, such as gold. In fact, they thought that lead was the immature form of gold. The metals were believed to be in different stages of development until they reached ultimate perfection. In his book, ‘Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural,’ James Randi noted that ‘Beginning about the year 100 and reaching its flower in medieval times, alchemy was an art based partly upon experimentation and partly upon magic. Early investigators of the natural processes centered their search on a mythical substance they knew as philosopher’s stone - Chrysopoeia. The stone was supposed to possess many valuable attributes such as the power to heal, to prolong life and to change base metals into precious metals such as gold.’ The philosopher’s stone in itself was not a stone but a wax, powder or liquid that was believed to have magical powers.

C. Though the first people to dabble in science were the Egyptians and the Babylonians, little real science had been achieved in spite of the fact that they refined metal ores. Many myths and legends of ancient China find mention of alchemy. Edward Chalmers Werner, of the Chinese Government’s Historiological Bureau situated in Peking, quotes from old Chinese records in his book, ‘Chang Tao-Ling, the first Taoist pope, was born in A.D. 35 during the reign of the Emperor Kuang Wu Ti of the Han dynasty.’ He further wrote, ‘He preferred to make his abode in the mountains of Western China where he persevered in the study of alchemy and in cultivating the virtues of purity and mental abstraction. With supernatural powers, alchemist Lao Tzu delivered a mystical treatise to Tao Ling. Following the instructions of the treatise, Tao Ling had discovered the Elixir of Life.’ The reference enforces the view that alchemy existed in China before the beginning of the Christian era.

D. As accusations of witchcraft were rampant, alchemists worked out a system by which they classified magic into two categories, the light or the good magic and the dark or evil magic. Due to the whims of various rulers, there was a decline in the use of alchemy and other ‘sciences’ based on magic. Queen Elizabeth had provided a luxurious life to magicians and alchemists in her reign. However, her successor, James I, who ascended the throne in 1603 was mercilessly hateful of magicians. Sorcerers, alchemists and people who claimed to have magical powers were forced to flee their homes.

E. Furthermore, new physical sciences had started gaining momentum among the noble classes. Although these theories were also based on the methods of alchemy, these sciences disregarded the concept of magic, favouring logic and reasoning. The approach can be regarded as the preliminary stage of modern sciences such as physics and chemistry. There was no way in which a science like alchemy, that had its apparent flaws could compete with the progress made by scientists like Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton. It is interesting to note here, that Newton, the inventor of calculus and the person who derived the law of universal gravitation also dabbled in alchemy. In his unpublished manuscript, Newton wrote that he thought he had the ‘great secret of alchemy.’ He described a ‘living’ mercury that ‘makes gold begin to swell and also to spring forth in sprouts and branches.’

F. Alchemy as a ‘science’ does not exist anymore, but the differences between gold and lead are still there. While lead is not only commonplace but can poison children and cause damage to the brain, gold is a precious metal and treasured. Throughout ancient history, stories abounded with alchemists trying to achieve immortality or turning lead into gold; however, their goal was never realized. But it is the quest for the alchemy that has led to the development of modern chemistry, making it the best contribution to the modern world and mankind.

A. The subject of organ donation arouses intense feelings, especially in the transplant community. It is almost sacrosanct. This is because the donation of an organ is a highly valued deed. By the very act of donation, a person gets a second chance at life. But the ever-widening gap between the donors and the patients with the need for organs has broached the subject of incentive-driven donations. Proposals are on to give financial incentives to drive donors to donate their kidneys. The suggestion, however, has generated vociferous objections from critics. It is no less than the commodification of the body, they argue.

B. Most countries, including the United States, consider payment for organ donation illegal. But this legal provision does not exist in all countries. In 2004, the World Health Organization urged members to take steps to ensure that the poor and vulnerable groups of society do not fall prey to transplant tourism. A summit held in 2008 by the International Society of Nephrology and Transplantation Society stated, ‘Organ trafficking and transplant tourism violate the principles of equity, justice and respect for human dignity and should be prohibited.’

C. There is little doubt that commercialization of organ transplant will target vulnerable donors who are usually impoverished, leading to inequality and injustice. The huge gap between the demand and the supply has resulted in a global shortage of organs for donation. This has led patients from developed countries to seek out donors in developing countries where laws are lax. By and large, these patients do not bother to find out how or from where the organ arrived. In many developing countries, black marketing in organ donation is rampant. Unscrupulous health professionals, agents and brokers take advantage of the organ recipients as well as the vulnerable donors. The donors are by and large uneducated as well as in dire need of funds and hence end up donating their kidneys for a paltry sum. It is a sad reflection of a society that when it comes to making a profit, humans are not averse to the exploitation of those less fortunate.

D. In countries where there is a lack of a proper health care system, providing a viable transplant programme is not always possible. There are two reasons for this: one is the economic limitation, and the other is a lack of deceased donor programme due to social or religious barriers. In such societies, the focus turns to unregulated clinics for living donations. While the Hippocratic Oath is taken seriously in the west where the interests of the donor are protected too, the same cannot be said of other developing countries. The problem thus is both disturbing and unethical.

E. Apart from losing a vital organ like the kidney, the living donor generally ends up losing money in the process. While most people feel that financial incentives are abhorrent and unethical, they do feel that donors should not have to suffer financial loss for their humanity. Often situations arise where the donors suffer medical complications after the operation. They get little postoperative care, placing them in a more adverse situation. They may end up paying for lifelong treatment. Even the expense of commuting to the hospital regularly can become a burden for some, depending on where they live. They may also have to take leave of absence and face added financial burden.

F. There is a feeling among some people that a regulated system is required whereby the donor gets financial gain from the donation. Initiatives that provide funds to living donors would increase living donations considerably, feels Dr Francis. L. Newton, medical director of the New England Organ Bank in Newton. This incentive need not always be cash but could also take the form of a lifetime health insurance. Though this sounds good on paper, there are fears that this could well lead to an organ market where the poor are exploited for their organs by the rich. As debates on the issue continue, the waiting list for kidney donations increases. One thing is for sure, the approach to the problem needs a radical change.